assignment:)) 9/17/10

REISS PEREZ

A nucleic acid is a macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric nucleotides. In biochemistry these molecules carry genetic information or form structures within cells. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acids are universal in living things, as they are found in all cells and viruses. Nucleic acids were first discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1871.

FUNCTIONS OF DNA:

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic code which ensures that daughter cells inherit the same characteristics as the parent cells
• DNA is the code from which all protein is synthesised
• All prokaryotes, eukaryote and some viruses have DNA
• All DNA code is composed from four nucleotide bases, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and Thymine.

DNA also contains all the genetic coding which is used to control functions, behaviour and development of an organism. DNA is also used as a long term storage device to store the genetic instructions. These instructions must be correct so the DNA can make an exact copy of itslef.

The function of DNA in a cell is to code the way proteins turn genes on or off.

FUNCTIONS OF RNA:

mRNA - messenger RNA - is a "copy" of the DNA base sequence of a gene after processing (capping, addition of 3' tail and splicing). It is used to transfer the genetic information from DNA, which is a storage molecule and quite inaccessible, to ribosomes, which perform translation to synthesise polypeptides.

tRNA - transfer RNA - is "charged" with an amino acid and used to recognize the code in the mRNA and "translate" it into the amino acid it is carrying. There are specific tRNA molecules for each amino acid.

rRNA - ribosomal RNA - makes up parts of the ribosome and has the catalytic transpeptidase action required to create polypeptide chains during translation.

snRNA - small nuclear RNA - regulates and provides the catalytic machinery for splicing or mRNA.

gRNA - guide RNA - directs editing of RNA to specific sites.

miRNA - micro RNA - inhibits translation by base pairing with complementary sequences of mRNA.

Signal Recognition Particle - RNA/protein molecule that binds to the "Signal Sequence" on polypeptides to be sent to the endoplasmic reticulum, causing translation to pause until polypeptide has been fed into translocon for entry into ER.

What components do DNA and RNA?

It is easier to say which componants are different as the two types of molecule are very similar. RNA uses ribose in the sugar-phosphate backbone rather than deoxyribose, as in DNA. And in RNA uracil (U) is used in place of (T) as a base. These are the two major differences. If you want a list of similarities then:

-both use a sugar phosphate backbone onto which bases are assembled

-Both use four bases to encode information (A,T,C,G - DNA) and(A,U,C,G- RNA)

-both use hydrogen bonding between bases to join sense and antisense strands (both sides of the ladder)

-all nucleotides (bases) used to make to both DNA and RNA have 3 phosphate groups attatched to them before they are added to the growing chain.

A chromosome is an organized building of DNA and protein that is found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα (chroma, colour) and σῶμα (soma, body) due to their property of being very strongly stained by particular dyes.

A gene is a unit of heredity in a living organism. It is normally a stretch of DNA that codes for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. All living things depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains. Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring.

Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA.

Nucleosides are glycosylamines consisting of a nucleobase (often referred to as simply base) bound to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar via a beta-glycosidic linkage. Examples of nucleosides include cytidine, uridine, adenosine, guanosine, thymidine and inosine.

genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of virus, in RNA. The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA.

histones are strongly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei, which package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.^[1][2] They are the chief protein components of chromatin, act as spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene regulation. Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long (a length to width ratio of more than 10 million to one in human DNA). For example, each human cell has about 1.8 meters of DNA, but wound on the histones it has about 90 millimeters of chromatin, which, when duplicated and condensed during mitosis, result in about 120 micrometers of chromosomes.^[3]

Nucleosomes are the basic unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes (cells with a nucleus), consisting of a segment of DNA wound around a histone protein core.^[1] This structure is often compared to thread wrapped around a spool.^[2]

Chromatin is the combination of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes. It is found inside the nuclei of eukaryotic cells. It is divided between heterochromatin (condensed) and euchromatin (extended) forms.^{[1] [2]} The major components of chromatin are DNA and histone proteins, although other proteins have prominent roles too. The functions of chromatin are to package DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell, to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis, and to serve as a mechanism to control expression and DNA replication. Chromatin contains genetic material-instructions to direct cell functions.

BASES OF DNA AND RNA:

The DNA bases are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine . In RNA, Thymine is replaced by Uracil. Adenine and guanine are known as purines and cytosine and thymine are known as pyrimidines.

Although scientists have made some minor changes to the Watson and Crick model, or have elaborated upon it, since its inception in 1953, the model's four major features remain the same yet today. These features are as follows:

• DNA is a double-stranded helix, with the two strands connected by hydrogen bonds. A bases are always paired with Ts, and Cs are always paired with Gs, which is consistent with and accounts for Chargaff's rule.
• Most DNA double helices are right-handed; that is, if you were to hold your right hand out, with your thumb pointed up and your fingers curled around your thumb, your thumb would represent the axis of the helix and your fingers would represent the sugar-phosphate backbone. Only one type of DNA, called Z-DNA, is left-handed.
• The DNA double helix is anti-parallel, which means that the 5' end of one strand is paired with the 3' end of its complementary strand (and vice versa). As shown in Figure 4, nucleotides are linked to each other by their phosphate groups, which bind the 3' end of one sugar to the 5' end of the next sugar.
• Not only are the DNA base pairs connected via hydrogen bonding, but the outer edges of the nitrogen-containing bases are exposed and available for potential hydrogen bonding as well. These hydrogen bonds provide easy access to the DNA for other molecules, including the proteins that play vital roles in the replication and expression of DNA (Figure 4).

Summary

Watson and Crick were not the discoverers of DNA, but rather the first scientists to formulate an accurate description of this molecule's complex, double-helical structure. Moreover, Watson and Crick's work was directly dependent on the research of numerous scientists before them, including Friedrich Miescher, Phoebus Levene, and Erwin Chargaff. Thanks to researchers such as these, we now know a great deal about genetic structure, and we continue to make great strides in understanding the human genome and the importance of DNA to life and health.

Putting the Evidence Together: Watson and Crick Propose the Double Helix

Chargaff's realization that A = T and C = G, combined with some crucially important X-ray crystallography work by English researchers Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, contributed to Watson and Crick's derivation of the three-dimensional, double-helical model for the structure of DNA. Watson and Crick's discovery was also made possible by recent advances in model building, or the assembly of possible three-dimensional structures based upon known molecular distances and bond angles, a technique advanced by American biochemist Linus Pauling. In fact, Watson and Crick were worried that they would be "scooped" by Pauling, who proposed a different model for the three-dimensional structure of DNA just months before they did. In the end, however, Pauling's prediction was incorrect.

Using cardboard cutouts representing the individual chemical components of the four bases and other nucleotide subunits, Watson and Crick shifted molecules around on their desktops, as though putting together a puzzle. They were misled for a while by an erroneous understanding of how the different elements in thymine and guanine (specifically, the carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen rings) were configured. Only upon the suggestion of American scientist Jerry Donohue did Watson decide to make new cardboard cutouts of the two bases, to see if perhaps a different atomic configuration would make a difference. It did. Not only did the complementary bases now fit together perfectly (i.e., A with T and C with G), with each pair held together by hydrogen bonds, but the structure also reflected Chargaff's rule (Figure 3).

complementary base pairs in the DNA:

The mRNA transcribed from the antisense DNA strand is not identical to that DNA strand; it is complementary. -the mRNA has the 'partners' of the bases on the DNA template
(remembering that RNA uses U instead of T)
-it IS identical to the sense strand; therefore, it carries the code for the protein.
-if the DNA says ACC, the mRNA says UGG.

Complementary base pairs are: adenine and thymine (A - T )
guanine and cytosine (G - C)

Base pairs in DNA

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), is a chemical found primarily in the nucleus of cells. DNA carries the instructions for making all the structures and materials the body needs to function.

DNA is organized as two complementary strands, head-to-toe, with bonds between them that can be "unzipped" like a zipper, separating the strands.

BATANGAS, MUST EXPERIENCE!!!!

Historical remembrance and culinary discovery tour of the cultural landmarks of Batangas, where cradle of heroes and one of the first provinces to rise against Spanish colonial rule.

The impressive Batangas Museum is likewise a must-see for tourists and is included in the itinerary.

The heritage town of Taal, the “Vigan of the South”, whose well-preserved, stately mansions and magnificent Basilica of St. Martin de Tours, seemingly transport one back to the Spanish era.

Beyond the history, food trip as well, with participants indulging in the rich, flavorful cuisine of Batangas. That’s early merienda of Tanauan’s native delicacy, sumang magkayakap, and kapeng barako. Lunch is at the province’s newest luxury property, Hotel Pontefino, where the menu includes favorites like bulalo, pinais na isda, adobo sa dilaw, tinumis and bulanglang, prepared by renowned chef Dennis Edillon. Finally, afternoon merienda in Taal features pinindot, empanadang Taal, sumang malagkit, maja blanco, minatamis na saging and other native fare. Indeed, a gastronomic experience that’s authentically Batangueno.

El Mirador

Scientific Name of Plants

The following is a list of the common plant names cross referenced to the scientific name of plants. The list represents some of the most popular varieties of perennial plants.

The scientific names of plants is based on taxonomy, the science of plant classification. Each name has two parts, the genus and the specie. This is referred to as the binomial (two names)system founded by Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist. Some species will have a third name, called the subspecies, variety, or form.

You can think of taxonomy as the plant directory of all species. The plant kingdom has over 350,000 species, thus the necessity of an ordered classification system.

RULES ON SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

REISS “CKATE” PEREZ – BSMT1D

RULES ON SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Rule 1: Basic Principle - Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs.

§My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.

Rule 2: The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.

§Everyone has done his or her homework.
§Somebody has left her purse.

Rule 3: Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.

§Some of the beads are missing.
§Some of the water is gone.

Rule 4: On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the sentence determines its number.

§None of you claims responsibility for this incident?
§None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
§None of the students have done their homework.

Rule 5: Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).

§The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
§The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

Rule 6: The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.

§Neither of the two traffic lights is working.


Rule 7: In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of interrogative constructions

§Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?
§Are either of you taking this seriously?

Rule 8: The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does). When nor or or is used the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb.

§Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.
§Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.
§Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
§Is either my father or my brothers responsible?

Rule 9 : The words there and here are never subjects.
§There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.
§There is no reason for this.
§Here are two apples.


Rule 10: Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.

§He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .

Rule 11: Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.

§The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is finally going to jail.

Rule 12: Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're preceded by the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).

§My glasses were on the bed.
§My pants were torn.
§A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

Rule 13: Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular verbs.

§The news from the front is bad.
§Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.

Rule 14: On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and require a plural verb.
§My assets were wiped out in the depression.
§The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
§Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.


Rule 15: Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, majorities of are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning.

§A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
§Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
§Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
§Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
§Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy


Rule 16: Sums and products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb.

§More than one student has tried this.
§Two and two is four.
§Four times four divided by two is eight.

Rule 17: If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.

§The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.
§It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
§It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.


Dear Dad,

You are my favorite too. Thank you for teaching about God, life, love and the pursuit of happiness. Thank you for teaching me about trusts and honor. Thank you for the gifts I always thought was stupid as a child. Your tennis treasures are what I miss more than anything. I loved the way you loved me. I remember lightning bug jars we would fill on early summer evenings beneath the tree. You called them God's night-lights. We never kept them for long, but the experience was magical. Mom and I spent the whole time you were looking trying to keep from bursting out with laughter. I though it was fun helping you hunt your shoes. I don't imagine most people would understand the fun we had looking for your shoes and they were never in the same place twice. I remember seeing you put cornbread in your milk. You peeled tomatoes for me cause I didn't like the skin. You walked with me and talked with me and never made me feel like a stupid kid when I asked you questions that to me were very important, like "How did the sky get blue?" You always tried to come to my school events such as plays, spelling bees and graduations. I remember sneaking off to the little store to buy a toy off the spinner rack. Lola and Lolo said you spoiled me and you did. I loved being spoiled by you. As I got older, I hated being called Princess. Thank you dad. You touched my life in so many ways. In my heart, you will always be the man that could do anything. Thank you for the magic you put in my life.

Love lots,
Ckate

Doctors!

Doctors!!!

6 Personality traits to admire and acquire

6 Personality traits to admire and acquire

Selflessness: In a world where many people don’t have the time or the interest in others, selflessness is a quality that seems to be less and less common. People can be selfless in the time they give, the ability to listen, their level of patience and the love that they give. Those who are giving and generous in nature have the power to make others feel loved, appreciated and special. While those who are self-absorbed tend to do the exact opposite.

Tolerance: Those people who are tolerant make us feel comfortable with who we are and special as individuals. All of us are different, and many of us have quirks and idiosyncrasies. After all, these differences make the world go round. Having the ability to accept people for who they are and not expect them to be who we want them to be is important in life, happiness and in the health of our relationships.

Genuineness: Having the ability to be real, authentic and honest is unique in a world where we put so much emphasis on the superficial. Feeling comfortable in one’s skin and being true to one’s self is one of the most beautiful traits one can possess. To have a REAL relationship with someone requires honesty…it requires hearing and giving input or feedback that may not always be popular…it means having the strength to tell it like it is and to not be afraid to face the consequences for doing so…it means loving people for who they really are…deep down…and not for what they appear to be.

Sensitivity: So often we are focused on what is important to ourselves that we can forget about those around us. Those who are sensitive are often thoughtful, appreciative and loving, in a way that makes you feel understood, valued and respected. Often, sensitive people are also self-aware, making them mindful of how they impact others with what they do and say.

Integrity: Call me cynical, but I think this characteristic is especially difficult to find. In a time when people will do things that are underhanded to make an extra buck (Bernie Madoff…can you hear me?), expose their personal lives to the public so they can be famous (balloon boy’s dad and any other reality TV mongers) and do what feels good in the moment without necessarily thinking of the consequences (Tiger Woods), integrity is a characteristic that is especially unique today.

Humility: Whether someone is super-smart, extremely talented or drop-dead gorgeous, there is something extra special about them if they don’t come across as though they know it all the time. Humility in those that possess extraordinary traits make others feel special too.